Digital preservation of multispecies heart morphology using smartphone LiDAR-assisted photogrammetry

Introduction Fresh biological specimens represent the most realistic material for anatomical study. However, fresh organs are difficult to digitize due to their deformability, moist reflective surfaces, and rapid post-mortem deterioration. These limitations are particularly relevant for the heart, an anatomically complex organ whose three-dimensional (3D) architecture and species-specific variations are challenging to document and preserve. This study developed and evaluated a complete workflow for the digital preservation of fresh comparative cardiac anatomy by combining smartphone LiDAR-assisted photogrammetry with a cloud-based platform for interactive 3D and augmented reality (AR) visualization. Methods One fresh heart from each of five animal species (dog, sheep, pig, cow, and horse) was digitized using a standardized acquisition protocol to explore the applicability of the workflow across specimens with different sizes and morphological characteristics. Quantitative assessment of three selected external linear dimensions was performed through direct comparison between physical specimens and their digital reconstructions, while anatomical evaluation was conducted by experienced veterinary anatomists. The reconstructed models were subsequently integrated into a cloud-based platform for Web3D and AR visualization Results Across 15 paired morphometric comparisons, the mean absolute percentage error was 4.08% (range: 0.83–8.28%), indicating close agreement for the external linear dimensions evaluated. Independent expert evaluation using a structured assessment rubric confirmed preservation of species-specific morphological characteristics, major cardiac landmarks, and external anatomical relationships across all models. In addition to complete heart reconstructions, the workflow was successfully applied to a dissected heart specimen, providing a proof of concept for the digital preservation and visualization of selected intracardiac structures. Following integration into the cloud platform, the models were made accessible through interactive Web3D and AR environments with anatomical labelling and cross-device compatibility. Discussion Beyond its potential educational applications in veterinary anatomy, the proposed workflow integrates acquisition, assessment, and cloud-based dissemination within a single digital pipeline, providing a practical framework for digital anatomical collections representing different mammalian cardiac morphologies, future anatomical repositories, and the long-term preservation and dissemination of fresh comparative cardiac anatomy.