Health risk assessment of PM2.5 exposure among traffic workers at selected densely populated traffic hotspots in Accra, Ghana

Traffic workers represent a vulnerable occupational group in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) cities, experiencing disproportionate exposure to PM2.5. However, localised health risk data remain limited. This study evaluated PM2.5 exposure levels and associated health risks among traffic workers at selected densely populated hotspots in Accra, Ghana. A cross-sectional descriptive study was employed across nine traffic intersections categorised as high-density, commercial/business, and low-density areas. Ambient PM2.5 concentrations were monitored using Aeroqual portable dust monitors. Exposure data were obtained from 316 participants (hawkers, traffic wardens, and shop attendants) through structured questionnaires. The USEPA health risk assessment framework was adopted to calculate the average daily dose (ADD) to evaluate non-carcinogenic and cancer risks. Elevated PM2.5 levels are most pronounced in HDTA (49.21 µg/m³), followed by CBTA (40.13 µg/m³) and LDTA (19.29 µg/m³), exceeding the WHO (15 µg/m³) 24-hour guideline. The AQI values recorded ranged from Moderate’ to ‘Unhealthy’. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment showed HQ values above the acceptable threshold (HQ > 1) across different age groups and occupational categories, particularly in high-density and commercial/business areas, with hawkers and young adults demonstrating the greatest risk due to prolonged outdoor exposure. Estimated cancer risks remained within acceptable limits (< 1 × 10⁻⁶) across all groups. This study demonstrates that traffic workers in Accra may face elevated non-carcinogenic health risks from chronic exposure to PM2.5. Urgent policy interventions, including urban planning reforms, stricter vehicle emission standards, and occupational health protections, are needed to safeguard this vulnerable population.