A Pressed Pinus koraiensis Leaf Juice-Coconut Water Formulation Enhances Antioxidant Defense and Attenuates Inflammatory, Metabolic, and Intestinal Epithelial Stress In Vitro

Abstract Pinus koraiensis leaves are a potential source of health-promoting phytochemicals. However, previous studies have primarily examined ethanol extracts or oil-based preparations. Here, we developed a food-compatible formulation consisting of pressed Korean pine leaf juice (PKJ) and coconut water (CW), designated PC, and evaluated its biological activities in vitro. PC exhibited greater antioxidant activity and higher phenolic and flavonoid assay responses than either component alone. Literature-based network analysis identified candidate targets associated with oxidative stress and inflammation, including BCL2, CASP3, HMOX1, IL6, NFE2L2, and NOS2. In LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells, PC suppressed iNOS/NO and pro-inflammatory cytokine responses. In HepG2 cells, PC restored glutathione-related antioxidant defense and Nrf2 expression under H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress and attenuated fructose-induced lipogenic and inflammatory responses. In H₂O₂-stimulated Caco-2 cells, PC restored glutathione-dependent antioxidant defense, suppressed iNOS/NO responses, and recovered GLP-1, ZO-1, and claudin-1 expression. Collectively, PC attenuated oxidative, inflammatory, metabolic, and intestinal epithelial stress, supporting its potential as a functional food formulation.