Understanding danmaku behaviour in esports live-streaming: insights from social cognitive theory

Introduction In the digital era, danmaku has become an important channel for real-time audience interaction and communication in esports live-streaming. Drawing on Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), this study examines the associations among viewing motivation, self-efficacy, sense of presence, and danmaku behaviour, as well as the proposed sequential indirect pathways linking these constructs. Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 1,457 participants with esports live-streaming experience in China. Regression analyses and bootstrap mediation analyses were employed to examine the proposed relationships and indirect pathways among the study variables. Results Viewing motivation was positively associated with danmaku behaviour, self-efficacy, and sense of presence. Self-efficacy was positively associated with both sense of presence and danmaku behaviour, while sense of presence was positively associated with danmaku behaviour. The mediation analysis further identified three statistically supported indirect pathways linking viewing motivation with danmaku behaviour: through self-efficacy, through sense of presence, and sequentially through self-efficacy and sense of presence. Conclusion These findings extend the application of SCT to esports live-streaming by showing how motivational, cognitive, and experiential factors are associated with viewers' real-time interactive behaviour within a socially mediated environment. The study also provides practical insights for understanding audience engagement and improving viewers' live-streaming experiences.