Integrating TPB and UTAUT to explain renewable energy adoption intentions in rural Terengganu, Malaysia: The role of facilitating conditions and policy awareness

The transition to renewable energy technologies (RETs) is essential for achieving Malaysia’s sustainable development and carbon-reduction goals. Despite various national initiatives, adoption rates in rural communities remain modest. This study develops and empirically tests an integrated behavioural framework that combines the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to explain intentions to adopt renewable energy in rural Terengganu, Malaysia. A structured questionnaire survey was administered to 200 rural household decision-makers across the Kemaman and Dungun districts. Data were analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) with 5,000 bootstrapping resamples. The structural model explains 54.8% of the variance in intention (R2 = 0.548), demonstrating moderate explanatory power, with satisfactory in-sample predictive relevance (Q2 = 0.443) and acceptable model fit (SRMR = 0.061). Perceived Facilitating Conditions (β = 0.357, p < 0.001) and Perceived Behavioural Control (β= 0.284, p < 0.001) emerged as the primary direct predictors of adoption intention, with Perceived Facilitating Conditions demonstrating the largest direct effect (β = 0.357, p < 0.001) and the largest effect size (f² = 0.138), classified as a small effect. Subjective Norms (β = 0.155, p = 0.004) and Awareness of National Energy Policy (β = 0.111, p < 0.001) also significantly influenced adoption intention, while Attitude exhibited a small but statistically significant effect (β = 0.055, p = 0.008, f² = 0.004). The findings suggest that renewable energy adoption intentions among rural households in Terengganu are driven substantially by perceived structural support and personal capability alongside attitudinal evaluations. By integrating TPB and UTAUT within a policy-aware framework, this study advances theoretical understanding and offers actionable insights for policymakers seeking to accelerate renewable energy transitions in emerging rural contexts.