Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Spodumene Processing Routes for Battery Grade Lithium Hydroxide Production in Australia, China and Finland

Abstract The increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries has intensified the need for sustainable and resilient supply chains for battery-grade lithium hydroxide monohydrate (LHM). This study presents a cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of three hard-rock spodumene-based LHM supply routes: the conventional Australian–Chinese route (BASE), integrated Australian production (I-AUS), and integrated European production in Finland (I-FIN). The functional unit is 1 kg of battery-grade LiOH·H₂O at the refinery gate. Fifteen environmental impact categories were assessed, with emphasis on acidification, eutrophication, global warming, land use, freshwater consumption, and cumulative energy demand. I-FIN exhibits the lowest impacts across all categories, with a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 10.21 kg CO₂-eq/FU, 22% and 34% lower than I-AUS and BASE, respectively. Compared with BASE, I-FIN reduces Freshwater Consumption (FWC) and Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) by 38% and 37%, respectively. Conversion/refining is the main environmental hotspot, contributing approximately 40–45% across most categories. Monte Carlo analysis indicates low uncertainty. Sensitivity analysis identifies ore grade, beneficiation recovery, and thermal-energy supply as key parameters, with lower-carbon thermal energy reducing GWP by up to 16%. Overall, integrated regional production, efficient beneficiation, soda-leaching conversion, and low-carbon energy can substantially improve the environmental performance and resilience of battery-grade LHM production.