The effects of smartphone presence during a reading task: a psychophysiological study

Abstract This study investigated the psychophysiological effects of smartphone presence and WhatsApp notifications during a reading task, combining questionnaires, electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (ECG), and eye-tracking (ET). Thirty-six WhatsApp users (mean age 22.54) participated in a reading experiment across three conditions: No Phone visible (No Phone), phone visible but silent (Phone Off), and phone visible with active WhatsApp notifications (Phone On). Behavioral results showed that the Phone On condition led to higher self-reported anxiety and reduced subjective understanding and objective comprehension of the text compared with the No Phone and Phone Off conditions. Physiologically, the Phone On condition was associated with a significant increase in frontal beta band EEG power (13–30 Hz) relative to the other two conditions. This increase suggests heightened engagement of cognitive control mechanisms needed to inhibit the urge to attend to notifications. No significant differences were observed in global EEG power or eye movement metrics across the conditions. Furthermore, WhatsApp dependence scores correlated positively with anxiety, perceived stress, and general mental health indicators. These findings suggest that the salience of social media notifications—even without direct engagement—imposes a measurable cognitive and affective cost, impairing task performance and acutely increasing anxiety. Our results underscore the need for effective notification management strategies in educational and work environments.