Abiotic factors modulate lead depletion and the phytoremediation potential of three herbaceous plant species under hydroponic conditions

alterations in phyto-pigments, carotenoids, free amino acids contents, and antioxidant enzymes. Scanning electron microscopy of the root tissues supported anatomical alterations. Energy-dispersive X-ray analyses suggested nutrient imbalances (Ca, Mg, N, Fe, and Mn). These findings indicate species-specific Pb accumulation and stress-response patterns, while highlighting the need to distinguish aqueous Pb depletion from plant-mediated uptake when evaluating phytoremediation performance.