Integers divisible by exactly one of three moduli and cube billiard words with deleted edge hits

For pairwise coprime integers a < b < c, list the integers divisible by exactly one of a, b, c in increasing order and record which modulus each is a multiple of. The resulting periodic word w(a,b,c) over {A, B, C} is the cutting sequence of the segment from the origin to (bc, ac, ab) in the cubic lattice, with every crossing of a lattice edge deleted. For cube billiard words in totally irrational directions, which never meet an edge, the number of factors of length m is exactly m² + m + 1. We show how deleting edge hits interacts with this count. First, once c > 3a(m−1), the length-m factors of w(a,b,c) are exactly those of the two-moduli word u(a,b) with at most one defect (a reduction theorem). Second, for a ≥ 3 and c > 3as with s = ⌊(b+1)/a⌋, the factor complexity of w(a,b,c) equals m² + m + 1 for every m ≤ s and is strictly larger at m = s+1; the first new factor is BA^(s−1)B, produced by a single deleted multiple of a. We also determine the two-letter factors for all c > b and show that the n-th term lies within five positions of its density estimate. The threshold statement holds for every triple with a ≥ 3 and abc ≤ 120,000, by exhaustive computation in the range c ≤ 3as not covered by the theorem, and we conjecture that it holds for all c > b. Files: the paper (PDF) and Oberoi_2026_exactly_one_three_moduli_code.zip, which contains the Python scripts (standard library only) used for every computation in the paper, including an independent brute-force check (exhaustive_check.py).

Authors

Publication Details

Journal
Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
Published
2026-11-09
DOI
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24078056
Primary Topic
semigroups and automata theory
Type
preprint
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preprint

Integers divisible by exactly one of three moduli and cube billiard words with deleted edge hits

Rishabh Oberoi
Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
semigroups and automata theory
preprint

Integers divisible by exactly one of three moduli and cube billiard words with deleted edge hits

Rishabh Oberoi
preprint en

Abstract

For pairwise coprime integers a < b < c, list the integers divisible by exactly one of a, b, c in increasing order and record which modulus each is a multiple of. The resulting periodic word w(a,b,c) over {A, B, C} is the cutting sequence of the segment from the origin to (bc, ac, ab) in the cubic lattice, with every crossing of a lattice edge deleted. For cube billiard words in totally irrational directions, which never meet an edge, the number of factors of length m is exactly m² + m + 1. We show how deleting edge hits interacts with this count. First, once c > 3a(m−1), the length-m factors of w(a,b,c) are exactly those of the two-moduli word u(a,b) with at most one defect (a reduction theorem). Second, for a ≥ 3 and c > 3as with s = ⌊(b+1)/a⌋, the factor complexity of w(a,b,c) equals m² + m + 1 for every m ≤ s and is strictly larger at m = s+1; the first new factor is BA^(s−1)B, produced by a single deleted multiple of a. We also determine the two-letter factors for all c > b and show that the n-th term lies within five positions of its density estimate. The threshold statement holds for every triple with a ≥ 3 and abc ≤ 120,000, by exhaustive computation in the range c ≤ 3as not covered by the theorem, and we conjecture that it holds for all c > b. Files: the paper (PDF) and Oberoi_2026_exactly_one_three_moduli_code.zip, which contains the Python scripts (standard library only) used for every computation in the paper, including an independent brute-force check (exhaustive_check.py).

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)
semigroups and automata theory
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