Beyond access: digital marketing capability gaps and profiles among persons with disabilities in Oman

Digital technologies increasingly create new opportunities for economic participation, yet capability inequalities continue to limit the ability of marginalized populations to benefit from ICT-enabled work environments. Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) are particularly vulnerable to such second level digital divide dynamics, where disparities in digital skills constrain meaningful participation despite growing technological access. Drawing on the Digital Divide Theory and Capability approach, this study examines digital capabilities relevant for ICT-enabled employment opportunities for PwDs in Oman, with the aim of identifying capability inequalities, perception vs. capability gaps, and heterogeneous capability profiles that may influence inclusive employment strategies. Using a structured Digital Marketing Competence Assessment (DMCA) instrument, data was collected from 106 PwDs through both self-perceived capability measures and objective knowledge and ability assessments. The analysis combined descriptive statistics, capability gap analysis, and cluster analysis to evaluate digital capability distribution and stratification within the sample. The results reveal consistently low levels of objectively assessed digital capabilities across all domains, with mean performance levels below 25%. Substantial discrepancies between perceived and actual capabilities were observed, indicating perception vs. capability mismatches that reinforce second level digital divide dynamics. Cluster analysis further identified four distinct capability profiles, ranging from structurally constrained individuals with minimal digital competence to strategically oriented participants exhibiting partial capability development. These findings demonstrate that digital exclusion among PwDs is characterized not only by capability deficits but also by significant intra-group heterogeneity. The study contributes to digital inclusion literature, by providing domain specific evidence of digital marketing capabilities among PwDs, by integrating their subjective and objective capability assessments with cluster analysis. The findings provide evidence on inequalities and differences in digital capabilities within the sampled population of PwDs in Oman, within the context of digital transformation and economic diversification. The findings also highlight the need for differentiated capability-oriented inclusion strategies that move beyond generalized digital literacy initiatives toward targeted capability building pathways that support inclusive ICT-enabled workforce participation.