Who Gets to Work, and How? Caste, Religion, and Time Allocation in Employment in India

Lasting labour market inequalities in India are scaffolded by social institutions, within which individuals continue to experience market exclusion and a “social closure” from economic opportunities on the basis of caste and religion. This study examines labour market inequalities among Hindu Scheduled Castes (SCs), Hindu Upper Castes (UCs), and Muslims, with particular focus on institutional exclusion, socio-religious stratification, and market discrimination. Using national Time Use Survey (TUS, 2019 & 2024) of India, this study investigates daily participation and time allocation in employment activities, with temporal change between 2019-24. The analysis conceptualises labour market inequality as a cumulative outcome of social closure, institutional exclusion, market-level discrimination, and time allocation, which provide advantages to dominant groups, while disserving marginalised groups. The study found that Hindu SCs and Muslim continue to cluster in low paid industries, while Hindu UCs dominate high paid jobs. The evidence also shows that socio-economic and regional effects on participation persist in India. Lastly, despite disparities in participation rate, there is negligible difference in time allocation within industry. However, sectoral variations demonstrate that individuals working in the tertiary sector allocate much higher time compared to primary and secondary workers. Together, the findings suggest that social identity intersects with human capital and labour-market institutions to shape participation and time allocation in employment activities.