Electromagnetic- and irradiation-based technologies for microbial inactivation in solid foods: mechanisms, synergistic strategies, and future perspectives

Microbial control in solid foods is essential for ensuring safety and quality. Conventional thermal sterilization methods often lead to nutrient degradation, texture deterioration, and high energy consumption. As the food industry advances toward efficient processing, electromagnetic-based technologies—particularly non-thermal and multiphysics-coupled pasteurization approaches—have emerged as promising alternatives. This review explores the mechanisms, efficacy, and applicability of electromagnetic- and irradiation-based inactivation methods, including infrared, photothermal, microwave, radiofrequency, photodynamic, pulsed light, ultraviolet, and irradiation, in solid food matrices. These technologies offer potential for enhancing inactivation efficacy while better preserving food quality, yet challenges remain in addressing treatment uniformity, regulatory compliance, as well as process safety. Synergistic strategies that combine thermal and non‑thermal effects or integrate physical fields with antimicrobial agents demonstrate considerable promise for improving microbial control. However, widespread adoption faces obstacles, including high operational costs, and limited intelligent process control. Based on a synthesis of recent advances, this work outlines an integrated framework for food electromagnetic inactivation systems to highlight the need for further research in intelligent system design to advance the field.