FROM ore to empire: precious metals and the rise of Macedonia

Abstract We investigated the relationship between the location and control of precious metal mines and deposits in northern Greece and the Balkans and the remarkable rise of Macedonia in fourth century BCE under Philip II. Favourable geology endowed the region with > 70 gold, silver and base metal deposits and our field studies indicate extensive evidence of ancient mining. Exploitation began in the fifth millennium and became widespread from the late sixth century BCE with introduction of colonial and tribal coinage. Most mines were outside the diminished and threatened kingdom Philip inherited in 359/360 BCE; he had no silver mine, and numerous gold, silver, copper and iron deposits were exploited by surrounding Illyrians, Paeonians, Thracians, the Chalcidian League, other tribes and Greek colonies. Early expansion was driven by security yet also delivered wealth through mines and booty. By 348 BCE Philip’s dominion increased fivefold and he controlled three of the most important gold and silver mining districts. They underpinned his gold and silver coinage and probably forged interdependent links between military strength, expansion, influence, and power, which characterised the remainder of his rule. Nevertheless, ambiguous lead isotope results deny attribution of silver coinage to individual deposits. When assassinated (336 BCE), Philip controlled most precious metal deposits in the region and had achieved essential preconditions for invading Persia. Whilst he acquired considerable wealth from booty, tribute, and slaves, we consider that precious metals underwrote the exceptional scale and rate of his military and diplomatic achievements; but from operating mines, unlike Alexander’s success, underwritten by plunder of above-ground treasuries.