Virtual Laboratories for Equitable STEM Learning in Resource-Constrained Education

Virtual laboratories are increasingly used to extend practical science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning where equipment, consumables, safety, staffing, or access to physical laboratories are constrained. This systematic narrative review examines how virtual laboratories support STEM learning and under which technological, pedagogical, and institutional conditions their benefits may extend to resource-constrained educational settings. A structured search of Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar was conducted for literature published from 2010 to 2024, with citation verification and a targeted update during revision. The screening record identified 320 records; after duplicate removal and screening, 30 studies were retained for the core synthesis. Findings show that virtual laboratories can produce conceptual-learning outcomes comparable to physical laboratories and can strengthen engagement, self-efficacy, visualization, and opportunities for repeated practice. However, effects are conditional. Sequential or blended use of virtual and physical laboratories is frequently stronger than treating either mode as a universal substitute, and immersive virtual reality can increase presence while also increasing cognitive load. Access to a virtual laboratory should therefore not be equated with educational equity: devices, connectivity, reliable power, teacher capability, curriculum alignment, accessibility, and instructional guidance determine who benefits. The review proposes an affordance-and-conditions framework in which virtual laboratories are positioned as complementary infrastructure for resilient STEM education, particularly when designed for low-bandwidth or offline use and integrated with teacher-supported inquiry and authentic practical experiences.