Critical yet dependent? Time poverty, critical AI engagement, and generative AI dependence in university interactive learning environments

Generative AI has become an interactive learning resource, yet repeated delegation to AI may also coincide with difficulty working without it. This cross-sectional questionnaire study examined theory-consistent covariance patterns among time poverty, AI self-efficacy, perceived social support, AI critical thinking, effort enjoyment belief (EEB), and generative AI dependence in 1,862 first-year students from three higher-education institutions in Northwest China. Time poverty and AI critical thinking were positively associated with dependence, while AI self-efficacy and PSS were positively associated with AI critical thinking. In the primary specification, EEB moderated the time poverty-AI critical thinking and AI critical thinking-dependence associations, although both interactions were small. The findings distinguish critical engagement with AI from reported reliance and highlight time pressure as a potentially important feature of students’ AI use.