Magnetic Nanoparticles in Precision Cancer Therapy: From Synthesis and Biological Interactions to Clinical Translation

Cancer treatment increasingly relies on integrated therapeutic approaches, particularly for solid tumors that remain difficult to eradicate using a single modality. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have emerged as versatile therapeutic platforms owing to their magnetic responsiveness and tunable physicochemical properties. Advances in synthesis methods enable precise control over MNP size, morphology, composition, and surface chemistry, shaping their biological behavior across multiple scales. At the cellular level, these properties regulate nanoparticle uptake, intracellular trafficking, and subcellular interactions. At the tissue and systemic levels, administration route, vascular transport, magnetic targeting, and ligand-mediated recognition influence biodistribution, tumor accumulation, and cellular selectivity. Material composition and surface functionalization further determine responsiveness to external or endogenous stimuli and mediate therapeutic effects, including heat generation, controlled drug release, catalytic activity, and reactive oxygen species production. These features allow MNP-based systems to support localized hyperthermia, drug delivery, catalytic therapies, and embolization-based interventions, making them attractive for treating deep-seated and inoperable tumors. However, heterogeneous tumor delivery, variable activation efficiency, off-target toxicity, and long-term safety concerns remain major barriers to clinical translation. Overall, this review summarizes recent advances and current limitations in MNP-based cancer therapy, providing a multiscale perspective that links material design, biological interactions, systemic delivery, therapeutic activation, and translational challenges.