ICT Inclusion and Women’s Empowerment in India: Evidence from a Nationally Representative Survey

Abstract Digital technologies are increasingly shaping women's access to information, financial services and social opportunities, yet evidence on their relationship with multidimensional women's empowerment in India remains limited. This study examined the association between ICT inclusion and women's empowerment among currently married/in-union women using nationally representative National Family Health Survey-5 data (2019–21). The analysis included 75,389 women aged 15–49 years. Women's empowerment was measured using a composite index covering household decision-making, economic empowerment and gender attitudes, while ICT inclusion was assessed using mobile phone ownership, internet use and mobile financial transactions. Survey-weighted linear regression models were used to estimate adjusted associations, followed by domain-specific analysis, assessment of urban–rural heterogeneity, and sensitivity analyses using alternative additive and principal component analysis (PCA)-derived indices. ICT inclusion was positively associated with women's empowerment in the fully adjusted model (β = 0.340; 95% CI: 0.307–0.374; P < 0.001). Adjusted predicted WEI increased from 8.45 among women with no ICT access to 9.47 among those with high ICT inclusion, representing a 1.02-point difference. The association was stronger for economic empowerment (β = 0.172; 95% CI: 0.158–0.186) and household decision-making (β = 0.147; 95% CI: 0.128–0.167), whereas no significant association was observed with gender attitudes. The association remained significant among both urban and rural women, with no significant urban–rural heterogeneity. Findings were also consistent across alternative index-construction methods. Greater ICT inclusion was associated with higher women's empowerment, particularly in economic and household decision-making domains. However, digital access alone may be insufficient to influence deeply embedded gender attitudes. Further research should examine how digital literacy, purpose of use and social norms shape the translation of digital inclusion into meaningful empowerment.