Spatial-temporal evolution and multidimensional gradient differentiation of production-living-ecological spaces in Yanhe River Basin, China

Abstract Quantifying multi–dimensional gradient differentiation of production–living–ecological spaces (PLEs) is essential for guiding differentiated spatial planning in ecologically fragile regions. However, existing studies rarely examine PLE functional value variation across both intensity zones and coupled natural–socio–economic gradients at the grid scale. Taking the Yanhe River Basin as the study area, this study constructed a grid–scale PLE functional value evaluation system to analyze PLE spatiotemporal evolution and gradient differentiation along six natural and socio–economic dimensions from 2000 to 2025. The results showed that: (1) All three spatial functions exhibited significant growth and convergence toward high–value zones, with PS high–value zone expanding from 44.9% to 53.0% and ES high–value zone from 55.8% to 67.3%, while LS high–value zones remained concentrated along the Yanhe River main course. (2) Natural gradients exerted a dominant organizing effect on PLE distribution, with the most dramatic transformations in flat terrain (< 3°), low elevations (< 945 m), and river–remote zones (> 1200 m), whereas ES improvements were most pronounced in steep terrain (> 25°), indicating that ecological restoration effectively targeted topographically constrained areas. (3) Road network expansion was the primary socio–economic driver of PLE restructuring, with the most substantial ES gains (+ 8.9%) in road–remote zones (> 6000 m), while the highest population density zone exhibited a trade–off of PS and LS gains against sharp ES decline. These findings underscore the necessity of incorporating multi–dimensional gradient analysis into territorial spatial planning to formulate differentiated strategies balancing ecological restoration and sustainable development in the Loess Hilly–Gully region.