Elementary or Complex? Evaluating Landscape Services Across Two Spatial Scales in Strunjan Landscape Park

Abstract This study assesses landscape services (LSs) in Strunjan Landscape Park, Slovenia, comparing the applicability of elementary (landscape features and land cover) versus complex (landscape patterns) spatial units for evaluation. The assessment of two types of service-providing units (SPUs) is performed through a two-tiered process combining qualitative and descriptive evaluation with quantitative/numerical LS evaluation. Whereas elementary SPUs provide a straightforward basis for evaluation, their contributions often depend on spatial context. A descriptive and numerical assessment of 28 elementary SPUs reveals that heterogeneous units, such as extensive orchards, gardens, forests and olive groves, provide the broadest range of services. By contrast, small or homogeneous units contribute less. Complex SPUs, represented by eight landscape patterns, capture the complex character of the landscape and provide more comprehensive LSs. Patterns such as mosaics of agricultural land, forested slopes and coastal lagoons deliver provisioning, regulating and cultural services across all categories. The evaluation confirms that landscape patterns better represent LS provision than features and land cover do, as they integrate structure, function and perception. The study concludes that complex SPUs are more suitable for LS mapping and planning because they better encompass the complexity of landscape character (LC) while allowing a certain level of standardisation.