EARLY FORMS OF THE GOODS CERTIFICATION SYSTEM IN MOVAROUNNAHR: THE ROLE OF MUHTASIBS, THE MASTER–APPRENTICE TRADITION, AND TRADEMARKS

The article examines historical mechanisms for ensuring product quality, professional qualification, and consumer interests in Mawarannahr. The activities of the muhtasib, the master–apprentice system, the practice of ijazah, and the functions of tamga and seals are comparatively analyzed in relation to the modern certification system. The study identifies historical forms of control, qualification verification, identification, and trust-building.