Heavy Metal Contamination in Vegetables Species and Associated Health Risks at Bachaoli Bujurg, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India

Contamination of edible vegetables by heavy metals is a potential pathway of dietary exposure and requires assessment using crop-specific measurements and age-related consumption assumptions. A field investigation was conducted during 2023–24 and 2024–25 at Bachaoli Bujurg (Site 1) to assess heavy metal accumulation in commonly consumed vegetables and evaluate the potential health risks associated with dietary exposure to contaminated vegetables. Five vegetables, namely spinach, brinjal, cabbage, okra and tomato, were evaluated for the concentrations of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and copper (Cu), along with exposure parameters, estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI). Among the vegetables studied, spinach recorded the highest pooled Pb concentration (0.407 mg kg⁻¹), followed by brinjal (0.355 mg kg⁻¹), cabbage (0.328 mg kg⁻¹), okra (0.3125 mg kg⁻¹) and tomato (0.284 mg kg⁻¹). Cadmium concentration was also highest in spinach (0.082 mg kg⁻¹) and lowest in tomato (0.0415 mg kg⁻¹). In contrast, okra recorded the highest pooled concentrations of Zn (0.1315 mg kg⁻¹) and Fe (0.1305 mg kg⁻¹), whereas tomato showed comparatively lower concentrations. Copper concentration was comparatively higher in okra, which was also reflected in its higher estimated dietary intake. The exposure parameters indicated a higher vegetable ingestion rate in adults, increasing from 0.21 kg day⁻¹ in 2023–24 to 0.30 kg day⁻¹ in 2024–25, with a pooled mean of 0.255 kg day⁻¹, whereas children showed a pooled ingestion rate of 0.105 kg day⁻¹. The exposure frequency was 365 days year⁻¹ for both age groups. Adults had pooled exposure duration of 30.15 years, compared with 7.07 years for children, while the pooled average body weights were 57.84 and 15.615 kg, respectively. The estimated daily intake of Pb was highest through spinach consumption (0.0013 mg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹), followed by brinjal (0.0012 mg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹), whereas tomato showed the lowest pooled Pb intake (0.0008 mg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹). For Cd, spinach recorded the highest pooled EDI (0.0002 mg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹), while Zn intake was highest through spinach and okra (0.0004 mg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹). Copper showed the highest pooled EDI in okra (0.0008 mg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹). The pooled THQ values for Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe and Cu were 0.00133, 0.002455, 0.001025, 0.000625 and 0.00112, respectively. All THQ values were substantially below the benchmark value of 1.0, indicating low estimated non-carcinogenic risk from individual metals through vegetable consumption. The pooled hazard index (HI) was also considerably below 1.0, indicating that the combined exposure to Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe and Cu through consumption of the studied vegetables was below the commonly used non-carcinogenic risk threshold. Overall, spinach exhibited comparatively greater accumulation of Pb and Cd, whereas okra showed higher accumulation and dietary intake of Zn, Fe and Cu. The findings emphasise the importance of continuous monitoring of heavy metal concentrations in agricultural soils and vegetables and the assessment of age-specific dietary exposure to ensure long-term food safety under the agro-climatic conditions of the Bachaoli Bujurg region.