Sustainability in Buyer–Supplier Networks: Dependence, Network Position and Supplier Carbon Intensity

Carbon regulation may not reduce total supply chain emissions if buyers shift carbon-intensive activities upstream. Drawing on Resource Dependence Theory (RDT), this study examines how supplier dependence on buyers relates to carbon intensity across buyer–supplier relationships and how buyers’ supply network positions moderate this relationship. Using a sample of Chinese buyer–supplier pairs from 2012 to 2023, we construct annual supply networks based on observed buyer–supplier relationships. The results show that greater supplier dependence is associated with higher supplier carbon intensity, lower buyer carbon intensity, and higher supplier carbon intensity relative to buyers, suggesting a potential pattern of upstream carbon leakage. Furthermore, the positive relationship between supplier dependence and supplier carbon intensity is strengthened by buyers’ supply network flow control but weakened by their supply network prominence. These associations remain broadly consistent across alternative variable measures and additional analyses examining potential endogeneity and selection bias. By linking supplier dependence, network structure, and carbon leakage, this study offers a micro-level relational perspective on supply chain environmental governance. The findings offer implications for managers and policymakers seeking to mitigate upstream carbon leakage and improve the environmental sustainability of supply chains.