Spatiotemporal environmental impact assessment of soil erosion using RUSLE, GIS, and remote sensing

This study evaluates soil erosion in the Kabul River Basin (KRB), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Pakistan, using the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) integrated with geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) techniques. We analyzed two benchmark years, 1994 and 2024, to quantify net multi-decadal changes in soil-loss magnitude, erosion severity, and spatial erosion patterns. Rainfall erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K), slope length and steepness (LS), cover management (C), and support practice (P) factors were integrated within a harmonized spatial framework, while Landsat-derived land use and land cover (LULC) maps represented temporal changes in surface conditions. Forest cover increased from 4892.76 to 6751.36 km2, whereas barren land decreased from 18,284.99 to 14,316.69 km2. Mean modelled soil loss declined from 4.70 t ha−1 yr−1 in 1994 to 3.04 t ha−1 yr−1 in 2024, while the maximum localized soil-loss rate decreased from approximately 5003 to 3912 t ha−1 yr−1. Barren land consistently exhibited the highest mean soil loss, decreasing from 14.44 to 11.24 t ha−1 yr−1, whereas forest remained comparatively low at 1.52 and 1.38 t ha−1 yr−1. Spatial soil-loss change ranged from −3184 to +2518 t ha−1 yr−1, with localized increases concentrated mainly in steep and runoff-convergent areas. Overall, the endpoint comparison indicates generally lower erosion conditions in 2024, while persistent mountainous hotspots remain priorities for targeted soil-conservation measures.