Potentially toxic metals bioaccumulation by Anabas testudineus, Heteropneustes microps, and Channa punctata using industrial effluent in laboratory exposure experiment and human health risk assessment

This study evaluates the culture of Anabas testudineus, Heteropneustes microps, and Channa punctata using industrial effluents. It also investigates the human health risks associated with potentially trace metal (PTMs) accumulation (chromium, cadmium, copper, zinc, nickel, and lead) in the muscle, gill, and bone of these fishes. Industrial waste-water showed declining water quality parameters and metal levels above standards, leading to significant bio-accumulation (BAF >1 L/kg). The experiment showed that PTMs concentration increased with effluent strength (100% > 50% > control) and gills significantly accumulated metals (p < 0.05) at full effluent exposure. A. testudineus absorbed more Cr, Zn, Ni, and Pb, while H. microps and C. punctata accumulated elevated Cd and Cu, respectively, resulting in the highest estimated daily intake (EDI). Target hazard quotients (THQ), hazard index (HI), and target cancer risk (TCR) increased with effluent percentages. THQ >1 for Cd (1.54–4.5, all samples) and Pb (1.17–1.92, gills of A. testudineus and C. punctata), which contributed to non-carcinogenic risk. HI values mostly for Cd were A. testudineus > C. punctata > H. microps. Exposed fish showed HI 4.37–7.86 (100% effluent) and 3.03–5.36 (50% effluent), indicating significant non-carcinogenic risk, with Cr, Cd, and Ni possessing severe carcinogenic threats. Pb’s carcinogenic risk remained insignificant under the tested conditions.