Climate Change Impacts on Horticultural Fruit Crops Production in Nepal: Challenges, Adaptation Strategies, and Future Perspectives

Climate change is increasingly threatening the sustainability and productivity of horticultural fruit production, particularly in mountainous countries such as Nepal, where diverse agro-ecological regional conditions and smallholder farming systems are highly sensitive to climatic variability.This review investigated the impacts of climate change on major horticultural fruit crops in Nepal, with particular emphasis on apple (Malus domestica), citrus (Citrus spp.), mango (Mangifera indica), and kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa).The study synthesizes recent scientific evidence about the effects of rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, drought, reduced winter chilling, and other extreme weather events on fruit phenology, flowering, fruit set, yield, quality, and post-harvest performance.The review also investigates emerging changes in pest and disease incidence and their implications for orchard productivity and smallholder livelihoods across diverse agro-ecological zones of Nepal.Furthermore, it evaluates climate-resilient adaptation and mitigation approaches, comprising stress-tolerant cultivar development, improved irrigation system and water-use efficiency, climate-smart orchard management, canopy and crop-load management, integrated pest and disease management, soil and moisture conservation, and digital climate advisory services.Nepalspecific case studies are integrated with recent international evidence to identify key knowledge and technological gaps.The review emphasized the need for coordinated investments in climate-resilient breeding, long-term field research, climate information systems, extension services, and supportive policies for the promotion of these interventions.Strengthening these interventions will be critical for enhancing the crop resilience, productivity, profitability, and long-term sustainability of fruit production systems under a changing climate in Nepal.