Strategies for breaking insecticide resistance in Spodoptera frugiperda infesting maize

The invasion of Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith, 1797) Fall armyworm (FAW) has transformed maize production into a constant battle against one of the world’s most destructive agricultural pests. Its extraordinary capacity for migration, rapid reproduction, and adaptation has enabled the pest to spread across continents and develop resistance to numerous insecticides. As chemical control becomes increasingly unreliable, sustainable solutions are urgently required. This review explores the current understanding of insecticide resistance in FAW including its causes, resistance mechanisms, and global resistance trends. It critically evaluates modern resistance management strategies such as mode-of-action-based insecticide rotation, insecticide mixtures, biological control agents, botanical pesticides, resistant maize genotypes, refugia and precision agriculture technologies. Recent advances in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and smart pest monitoring systems are revolutionizing resistance management through real-time surveillance and predictive decision-making. The evidence clearly demonstrates that no single strategy can provide lasting control of this highly adaptable pest. Instead, a multidisciplinary Integrated Resistance Management framework offers the most effective pathway toward sustainable pest suppression, reduced environmental impact, and enhanced food security in maize-based production systems. Existing reviews largely address insecticide resistance in a fragmented manner, with limited integration of resistance mechanisms, geographic variability, cross-resistance and resistance-management strategies. The present review provides a comprehensive, integrative perspective linking the geographical distribution, mechanisms, monitoring, and management approaches to develop practical strategies for breaking insecticide resistance in FAW infesting maize.