Can local mineral reserves support the path towards energy independence? A resource assessment of recyclable perovskite photovoltaics

Abstract Solar energy is a renewable alternative to the fossil fuels on which the European Union and global energy systems are reliant. Perovskite solar cells (PSC) are a promising next generation photovoltaic technology due to their high power conversion efficiencies as well as their potential for simple manufacturing routes and low cost. This letter assesses whether decentralised PSC manufacturing could be complemented by decentralised material supply, using the European Union’s own reserves and secondary raw-material streams. Using data from the Raw Mineral Information System and Urban Mine Platform, three perovskite module designs are evaluated for their potential electricity generation. Terawatt-hour deployment would be most constrained by demands for titanium dioxide, indium, caesium, aluminium, graphite, tin and silver with restrictions in annual energy production of 0 TWh – 10,200 TWh. In contrast, the reported reserves of fluorine, zirconium, lead and phosphorus would theoretically be able to produce 35,000 TWh – 217,300,000 TWh per year, which is significantly higher than current energy demands. Under full waste recovery, however, secondary sources of titanium dioxide, lead, tin, aluminium, nickel and phosphorus could support the manufacturing of enough modules to support 31,000 TWh − 209,100,000 TWh. Although this is limited by current end-of-life recycling input rates, the concentration of waste in electronic and electrical equipment is often similar or higher than that of ore deposits, thus there is benefit to design products for end-of-life recycling.