Rethinking impulsivity: the hippocampal–prefrontal axis as a contextual regulator of reward-seeking behavior

Impulsivity is commonly interpreted as a failure of inhibitory control mediated by prefrontal circuits. Although this framework has substantially advanced our understanding of behavioral regulation, it does not fully account for how contextual and prospective information influences reward-related decision-making. Here, we propose that the ventral hippocampus–medial prefrontal cortex (vHPC–mPFC) axis represents a key component of a broader contextual regulation system through which previous experience, current contingencies, and anticipated outcomes influence behavioral choice. Evidence across preclinical models indicates that hippocampal contributions to impulsive behavior are not uniform, but vary according to the behavioral operation being measured and the downstream circuits engaged. Within this framework, contextual representations can either constrain or promote reward seeking depending on learned associations and current contingencies. We therefore propose that contextual dysregulation should not be understood simply as a loss of contextual influence, but as altered weighting, updating, or integration of contextual and prospective information during decision-making. This perspective extends established prefrontal models of impulsivity by incorporating hippocampal–prefrontal and hippocampal–striatal interactions within a distributed circuit framework. It provides a framework for investigating how context shapes adaptive and maladaptive reward-seeking behavior and generates testable predictions regarding pathway- and task-specific contributions to impulsivity and substance use disorders.