Relative Influence of Gender, School Type, and Residence on Eight Dimensions of Study Habits: Evidence from Higher Secondary Students in Meghalaya, India

Abstract This study examines the relative influence of gender, school management type, and location (residence) on eight dimensions of study habits among higher secondary students in Meghalaya, India. A descriptive survey design was implemented using Probability Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling based on Cochran's (1977) formula, selecting a sample of 707 Class XII students (325 males, 382 females) under the Meghalaya Board of School Education (MBOSE) from Government, Deficit, and Private schools. Data were collected using the Palsane and Sharma Study Habit Inventory (PSSHI) (reliability = 0.74; validity = 0.69). Due to statistically significant violations of multivariate normality and covariance equality (Box's M p < 0.001; Levene's test p < 0.001), a three-way Factorial Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was executed employing Pillai's Trace as a robust test statistic, followed by univariate tests with a conservative Bonferroni-corrected alpha level of p < 0.01. The multivariate results demonstrated statistically significant main effects for Gender (Pillai's Trace = 0.025, F = 2.244, p = 0.023) and School Type (Pillai's Trace = 0.043, F = 1.908, p = 0.016), whereas Location and all two-way and three-way interaction effects were non-significant. Follow-up univariate analyses revealed that female students exhibited statistically superior study habits in Note-Taking (p = 0.004) and Memory (p = 0.023), whereas male students reported significantly higher scores in study-related Health Conditions (p = 0.039). The strongest univariate difference for School Type was observed in Reading Ability (p = 0.013). Despite statistical significance, the effect sizes for Gender (partial eta-squared = 0.025) and School Type (partial eta-squared = 0.022) are small, explaining less than 5% of the total variance in study habits. We interpret this 'low-variance' paradox as indicative of high socio-demographic homogeneity in study behaviors driven by curriculum standardization and digital access, and we recommend that future research shift focus from macroscopic demographic variables to individual psychological factors such as academic anxiety and self-efficacy.