Diet pattern and human grey wolf conflict in Orakzai District, Pakistan

Introduction The grey wolf ( Canis lupus ) is an important apex predator whose persistence in human-dominated landscapes is increasingly influenced by livestock depredation and negative human perceptions. This study investigated grey wolf diet composition, reported livestock depredation patterns, and community perceptions in Orakzai District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Methods Field surveys were conducted from August 2024 to July 2025 across 25 purposively selected sites. Grey wolf scats were collected and analysed using morphological characteristics and microscopic examination of prey remains. Structured household interviews were conducted with 123 respondents across 25 villages. Firth penalized logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with negative rather than neutral perceptions of grey wolves. Results A total of 29 wolf scats yielded 30 identified prey occurrences representing 15 prey species. Wild prey accounted for 17 occurrences (56.67%), whereas domestic prey accounted for 13 (43.33%). Wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) was the most frequently detected prey species, followed by Asiatic palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), while cattle ( Bos taurus ) were the most frequently detected domestic prey. Dietary diversity was H′ = 2.52, with prey species richness of 15 and evenness of 0.93. These findings represent prey occurrences detected in scats and cannot establish prey preference or selection because prey availability was not independently quantified. All 123 respondents reported at least one livestock attack attributed to grey wolves. Most reported attacks occurred at night (61.0%), followed by evening (35.0%), and October had the highest frequency of reported attacks (20.5%). Overall, 80.5% of respondents expressed negative perceptions of grey wolves. The reported number of grey wolves killed during the previous 5–10 years was positively associated with the odds of negative rather than neutral perception (OR = 2.495, 95% CI = 1.453–4.740, P < 0.001). Age, occupation, livestock holdings, wolf sightings, attack timing, and livestock injury were not statistically significant. Discussion The findings highlight substantial interactions between grey wolves and livestock-dependent communities. They emphasize the need for evidence-based conflict mitigation, improved livestock protection, and conservation strategies informed by prey availability and local ecological conditions.