Behavioral and contextual predictors of self-reported pedestrian visibility-enhancing behaviors among Iranian adolescents: an application of the integrative model of behavioral prediction

Objective: To examine behavioral and contextual factors associated with adolescents’ self-reported pedestrian visibility-enhancing behaviors using the Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction (IMBP), while clearly distinguishing self-reported behavior from actual driver-perceived visibility. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 520 students in grades 7–9 in Hamadan, Iran. Students were sampled using a multistage stratified cluster design. The questionnaire assessed attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), intention, skills/recognition, perceived environmental conditions, and five self-reported visibility-enhancing behaviors. Because several scales did not support a simple one-factor reflective structure, the final analysis used observed composite scores. The sampling design was taken into account using four district × school-type strata and 16 schools as primary sampling units. Indirect effects were examined with 5,000 stratified school-cluster bootstrap samples. Results: Attitude (standardized β = .313, 95% CI [.245, .380]), subjective norms (β = .257 [.191, .323]), and PBC (β = .275 [.230, .320]) were independently associated with intention (R2 = .465; all p < .001). Intention (β = .178 [.104, .251], p < .001), skills/recognition (β = .223 [.082, .364], p = .005), and perceived environmental factors (β = .182 [.098, .266], p < .001) were associated with the behavior composite (R2 = .213). Bias-corrected stratified cluster-bootstrap intervals supported indirect associations through intention for attitude (standardized indirect effect = .056, 95% CI [.037, .075]), subjective norms (.046 [.029, .068]), and PBC (.049 [.031, .070]). The first unrotated factor accounted for 30.2% of item variance, although common-method bias cannot be excluded. Student pedestrian visibility behaviors are best understood as a combination of clothing/reflective use, route and situational choices, shaped by both personal abilities and environmental context. Behavioral intention is a key predictor of these behaviors, mediating the effects of attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral control. Skills and environmental factors also exert direct effects. These findings suggest that improving student pedestrian safety requires integrated interventions targeting cognitive/attitudinal factors, skill development, and environmental conditions such as lighting and pedestrian infrastructure.