Determinants of shadow education participation: a parental decision-making perspective among primary school families in Kazakhstan

Shadow education has expanded, yet less is known about how parents make tutoring decisions for children. Drawing on consumer theory, this study examines parental decision-making regarding private tutoring among Grade 6 families in urban Kazakhstan. Survey data from 709 parents were analysed using descriptive statistics and multiple regression. 65.2% reported that their children received private tutoring, with English and mathematics the most common subjects. Parents’ decisions reflected perceived benefits, preparation for selective schooling, and financial constraints. Parents reported benefits across five areas, including examination performance, confidence in school performance, relationships with schoolteachers, revision skills, and self-learning skills. Regression analyses showed that household composition, tutoring characteristics, and perceived benefits were differently associated with financial investment and tutoring enrolment across children. The findings conceptualise parental demand as structured educational consumption shaped by the interplay between perceived utility and unequal household resources, with implications for understanding educational inequality in competitive schooling systems internationally.