Time Alone – Solitude and Loneliness from the Self-Determining Perspective

Abstract Solitude and loneliness represent two contrasting yet connected dimensions of being alone, shaped less by physical isolation and more by the motivations underlying it. While loneliness is perceived negatively, linked to distress and adverse outcomes, solitude can be a positive source of self-reflection, personal growth, or relaxation. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory, this article examines how the satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness influence individuals’ experiences of time alone. We argue that solitude is best understood as a self-determined, intrinsically motivated experience in which the individual voluntarily chooses to be alone in ways that support autonomy, competence, or relatedness needs. In contrast, loneliness is conceptualized as a non-self-determined state, extrinsically motivated, imposed, or marked by the thwarting of one or more psychological needs. By framing the experience of being alone through the lens of Self-Determination Theory, we highlight how the psychological processes that accompany it, an individual’s extrinsic versus intrinsic motivational stance, and need satisfaction or frustration, can explain why similar circumstances while being alone may be experienced as either enriching or distressing. Implications for psychological interventions, education, and research are discussed, suggesting that fostering autonomy-supportive environments and strengthening intrinsic motivation can promote beneficial solitude and reduce harmful loneliness. Understanding solitude and loneliness as outcomes of self-determined versus non-self-determined conditions offers a nuanced view of time spent alone, helping to differentiate between healthy and maladaptive forms and guiding strategies to enhance individuals’ psychological well-being.