English language education in Myanmar: Diverse realities in a fractured nation

Abstract This article explores recent developments in English language education in Myanmar, situating them within the overlapping crises of the COVID‑19 pandemic and the 2021 military coup (the Coup‑vid era). It begins by tracing the historical trajectory of English in Myanmar (the when ) before examining its current place within a highly politicised and fragmented education landscape. The article then analyses the where and who of English language education, showing how provision has been reshaped across four spaces: state institutions, private‑sector provision, ethnic and community education, and resistance‑aligned parallel systems. It then examines how English is taught and learned across these settings (the how ), before considering why Myanmar’s experiences matter for wider discussions of English language education in conflict‑affected settings.