When Learning Becomes a Game: The Impact of Ladders War in Game-Based Learning on Students' Mathematical Critical Thinking Skills

Mathematical critical thinking remains a persistent challenge in elementary education globally, as TIMSS 2023 findings show that only a small proportion of fourth-grade students worldwide reached the High and Advanced benchmarks in mathematics, while empirical evidence on the effectiveness of game-based approaches at the primary level remains limited. This study examined how the Game-Based Learning (GBL) model, assisted by Ladders War media, influenced fourth-grade students' mathematical critical-thinking skills in number patterns, a topic fundamental to algebraic reasoning that remains persistently difficult for young learners. Employing a quasi-experimental Nonequivalent Control Group Design, 50 students (aged 9–10; 25 males, 25 females) from two intact classes in Bekasi, Indonesia, participated. The study was conducted over four 90-minute sessions: the pretest was administered at the beginning of the first session, followed by the first treatment, two additional treatment sessions, and a posttest in the fourth session. Critical thinking was assessed using a five-item expert-validated essay test (reliability = 0.74) measuring analysis, inference, evaluation, and explanation. ANCOVA with pretest scores as the covariate yielded a large effect size (η²p = 0.217) and a significant between-group difference (F = 13.013, p < .001), with an adjusted mean difference of 13.132 points (95% CI [5.809, 20.455]). The GBL group achieved a higher learning gain (N-Gain = 0.56, moderate) than the control group (N-Gain = 0.33, moderate). These findings suggest that the GBL model with Ladders War media effectively supports the development of mathematical critical thinking among elementary school students. Theoretically, this study reinforces the use of GBL to foster higher-order thinking, while practically offering an innovative instructional alternative for mathematics teachers, with broader implications for mathematics education in developing-country contexts. Keywords: game-based learning, mathematical critical thinking, ladders war.