DIABETES MELLITUS

Diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus are two distinct endocrine disorders that can present with overlapping clinical manifestations, particularly polyuria and polydipsia. However, their underlying mechanisms, biochemical abnormalities and therapeutic approaches differ considerably. Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycaemia resulting from impaired insulin secretion, insulin resistance or a combination of both. It is associated with significant microvascular and macrovascular complications, including diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy and cardiovascular disease. In contrast, diabetes insipidus is characterized by impaired water conservation by the kidneys due to deficient arginine vasopressin secretion or renal resistance to its action. Patients typically present with excessive dilute urine production, increased thirst, nocturia and, in severe cases, dehydration and hypernatraemia. This review discusses the aetiology, classification, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic approaches and evidence-based treatment protocols for both disorders. It also examines recent literature to identify limitations in existing diagnostic and therapeutic approaches and proposes potential research directions, particularly in precision medicine, early diagnosis, treatment accessibility and novel biomarkers.