Low-Budget Topographic Mapping: Systematic 360° Camera Surveys with Ground Control Points for Drone-Restricted Archaeological Contexts

Abstract This article introduces a low-budget approach to archaeological land surveying using spherical cameras, developed for contexts where drone photography is unavailable or where UAV regulations impede its use. The technique combines a 360° camera with standard accessories, making it affordable, portable, and deployable on demand across varied logistical conditions. It has proven to be quicker, more detailed, and more accurate than EDM-based survey sampling, and it produces results comparable to drone-based photogrammetry in terms of Ground Sample Distance, with the added capability to generate orthomosaics and vertical shots. This methodological article describes technology, equipment, and workflow, and it presents two case studies in which the technique was successfully tested and validated: Tell F6 (Failaka, Kuwait) and the Roman fort at Hiw (Qena, Egypt)—two sites with complex topography, under 4 ha, and with no or scarce vegetation. Quantitative results from both sites are reported, including the GCP RMSE value. We discuss the advantages and limitations of the technique, with the objective of proposing a reproducible, affordable, and legally viable method for archaeological topographic documentation when conventional remote sensing tools are unavailable.