Inter-organ interaction axes in systemic inflammation: network pathological mechanisms, pharmacological targets, and precision treatment strategies

Systemic inflammation plays a central role in both acute and chronic pathological states. Acute inflammation is often triggered by infections or trauma, characterized by rapid immune activation low-grade inflammation is closely associated with aging-related diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. During disease progression, inter-organ communication forms dynamic networks mediated by metabolites, immune factors, and neural signals, further amplifying the inflammatory response. This article focuses on three key inter-organ interaction axes: the gut-liver-brain axis, the adipose-muscle-bone axis, and the heart-kidney-lung axis. It discusses microbiota-driven metabolic neuroinflammation, immune-metabolic imbalance-induced tissue remodeling, and endothelial and microcirculatory damage in the context of multi-organ inflammation. Based on axis-specific molecular targets and spatiotemporal precision, pharmacological strategies are shifting from single-factor interventions to multitarget combination therapies. Meanwhile, innovative technologies such as single-cell multi-omics, spatial omics, artificial intelligence (AI), and organ-on-a-chip are expediting precision medicine approaches for the individualized treatment of systemic inflammation.