Cyclone-induced economic and non-economic loss and damage in coastal Bangladesh: A geospatial comparison of Kalapara and Dumki using an Integrated Loss and Damage Index

Tropical cyclones continue to cause extensive economic and non-economic losses across coastal Bangladesh. Empirical assessments often focus narrowly on monetary damage while ignoring spatial disparities and non-economic impacts. This study provides a comparative evaluation of cyclone-induced loss and damage (L&D) in two distinct upazilas of Patuakhali District: the highly exposed coastal zone of Kalapara and the inland Dumki. Using a quantitative–spatial framework, the research collected primary data from 400 households and integrated it with geospatial hazard modelling, socioeconomic vulnerability assessment, and spatial risk–hotspot analysis in QGIS 3.38. Three indices were developed: the total economic loss index (ELI), the non-economic loss index (NELI), and the integrated loss and damage index (ILDI). The ILDI was constructed as a composite index by assigning equal weights to the economic loss index (ELI) and the non-economic loss index (NELI). Mann–Whitney U tests showed that economic losses did not differ significantly between the two upazilas (p = 0.124), whereas non-economic losses were significantly higher in Kalapara (p < 0.001). This difference was reflected in the ILDI (p < 0.001), indicating that variation in non-economic dimensions, including psychological distress, displacement, educational disruption, environmental degradation, and decline in well-being, was more strongly associated with the observed differences in integrated loss and damage between the two upazilas. Spatial analysis revealed noticeable hazard exposure and vulnerability in Kalapara, with high-risk zones concentrated along coastal settlement belts. The composite priority map (Risk × ILDI) identified critical zones where high hazard exposure and socio-economic fragility are present, demonstrating strong spatial inequalities in integrated disaster impact. This study thus emphasizes the need to consider non-economic factors in disaster risk assessments, especially in climate-change-prone coastal zones.