Theoretical Foundations of Student Tracking into Vocational Pathways after Lower Secondary Education: International Perspectives and Policy Recommendations for Vietnam

Student tracking into technical and vocational education and training (TVET) pathways after lower secondary education has become an important strategy for developing skilled workforces, improving school-to-work transitions, and supporting economic competitiveness. However, its effectiveness remains debated because, while differentiated pathways can enhance labor market responsiveness, they may also reinforce educational inequality if poorly designed. This study examined the theoretical foundations of vocational tracking and synthesized international evidence to identify policy implications for Vietnam's post-Grade 9 streaming reforms. A qualitative systematic literature review was conducted using publications retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, OECD, UNESCO, the World Bank, and other authoritative sources. Evidence was synthesized through thematic analysis guided by five complementary perspectives: human capital, functionalist, social reproduction, career development, and school-to-work transition theories. The review found that effective technical and vocational education and training systems consistently feature coherent governance, strong employer engagement, comprehensive career guidance, flexible progression pathways, and close integration with lifelong learning. Comparative evidence from Germany, Switzerland, Singapore, South Korea, China, and Japan indicates that these institutional conditions strengthen workforce development, educational mobility, and social equity. The study proposes an integrated conceptual framework and provides evidence-based policy recommendations to support technical and vocational education and training reform and improve post-Grade 9 student tracking in Vietnam.