Camera-trap-based density estimation and control of an introduced muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) population in mainland Europe

Abstract methods shooting from tree stands (high seats) and car-assisted stalking. Muntjac was the second most frequently detected species, after roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ). The REM revealed low population densities in the first two years of the study (95% confidence intervals: 3–11 individuals per km² in 2022–2023 and 3–10 per km² in 2023–2024), and a very low density in the third year (< 1 individual per km², 2024–2025). These densities are substantially lower than those reported for British populations, suggesting that the studied population is still in an early phase of invasion. The decline observed in the final year is attributed to the management interventions. Car-assisted stalking proved ten times more effective in terms of catch per unit effort than shooting from tree stands. Further research into muntjac population dynamics and the efficacy of control methods is essential to address the challenges posed by this emerging invasive species across Europe.