From global rare earth resources to the EU supply security: An overview on primary and alternative resources and strategic pathways

Abstract The increasing strategic importance of rare earth elements is shaped by geopolitical factors, supply risks, and rising demand from high-technology, energy transition, and defense sectors, rather than geological scarcity. For the European Union, rare earth elements represent both a critical vulnerability and an essential resource for achieving policy objectives. Therefore, peer-reviewed literature, industry reports, and policy documents published through 2026 were synthesized to assess geological conditions of rare earths global and EU resources, current mining and refining capacities, potential contribution of selected alternative sources, and global diversifying strategies of major rare-earth consuming economies. The findings indicate that alternative sources, such as coal ash, red mud, electronic waste, and deep-sea mining, are unlikely to reduce the EU import dependence in the short to medium term due to combined geological, technological, economic, and environmental constraints. The findings show that the EU’s mining, refining, and stockpiling capacities remain comparatively underdeveloped, whereas major rare earth element-consuming economies, including China, the U.S., and Japan have strengthened supply security through integrated strategies combining domestic production, overseas investments, technological innovation, and stockpiling. To reduce strategic dependence, the EU requires an integrated strategy aligned with the Critical Raw Materials Act, including expanded exploration incentives and refining capacity, strategic partnerships and coordinated stockpiling mechanisms. Such measures are essential to enhance resilience against supply disruptions, strengthen competitiveness, and support the EU’s transition to a sustainable and secure resource future under evolving global market conditions and intensifying geopolitical competition worldwide.