Environmental, circularity, and criticality assessment of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries: Implications for management strategies in Mexico

Mexico's rapid growth in battery electric vehicle (BEV) adoption has not been accompanied by a regulatory framework for the end-of-life management of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), creating environmental risks and limiting the recovery of strategic materials. This study evaluates four end-of-life management strategies for BEV LIBs in Mexico (controlled disposal, hydrometallurgical recycling, pyrometallurgical recycling, and repurposing) using an integrated framework that combines Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), the Material Circularity Indicator (MCI), and a criticality-weighted extension (MCI-c). The proposed MCI-c incorporates material criticality into the circularity assessment, allowing resource recovery to be evaluated not only in terms of material recirculation but also considering the strategic importance of recovered materials. Repurposing achieved the best overall environmental and circularity performance, while hydrometallurgical recycling consistently outperformed pyrometallurgical recycling among recycling alternatives. Incorporating criticality into the assessment altered the prioritization of management strategies under increasing lithium criticality, demonstrating that criticality can influence end-of-life management priorities. These findings highlight the importance of integrating environmental performance, material circularity, and criticality into the evaluation of end-of-life LIBs management strategies. For Mexico, they support the development of a dedicated regulatory framework that prioritizes higher-value recovery strategies and incorporates criticality into end-of-life decision-making. More broadly, the proposed framework provides a practical approach for evaluating end-of-life LIBs management in countries facing similar challenges in battery circularity and critical material supply.