Improving Student-Teacher Relationships for Autistic Children: Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial of a Professional Development Program

Abstract Purpose While most autistic students are placed in general education classrooms, the majority of general education teachers report a lack of autism training. We examined the feasibility and efficacy of Smooth Sailing, a relationship-focused, neurodiversity-affirming, professional development (PD) program, in a small, randomized controlled trial. Methods Participants were 32 general education teachers (kindergarten - 2nd grade) and their autistic students (one per teacher), randomly assigned to intervention or control groups. Teachers and caregivers completed measures at Time 1, Time 2, Time 3, and at the two-month follow-up. The intervention included structured, asynchronous modules, coaching (via Zoom), and in-vivo learning activities. Social validity was also examined throughout. Results Regarding efficacy, the program had medium to large effects on teacher-reported student-teacher relationship quality (d=0.79), teachers’ autism knowledge and self-efficacy (ds=1.49, 1.50), and caregiver-teacher relationship quality (d=0.54). Effects on child emotional-behavioral, social, and academic adjustment were medium to large (ds=0.63, 0.42, and 0.91). Outcomes were generally sustained at 2-month follow-up. Regarding feasibility, observed and teacher-reported data indicate excellent acceptability, implementation fidelity, and sustainability. Conclusions Findings demonstrate the capacity for this program to enhance relationships and autism knowledge for general education teachers and to improve school adjustment for autistic students.