Historical trends in goalkeeper effectiveness in handball: a longitudinal analysis by sex and shooting positions across 11 World Championships (2005–2025)

This study examined the historical evolution of goalkeeper effectiveness in handball and compared sex-based patterns across shooting positions. Data were extracted from International Handball Federation reports covering 11 World Championships (2005–2025) and comprised 201,245 shots. Goalkeeper effectiveness was calculated for overall performance and specific shooting positions (six-metre, wing, seven-metre, nine-metre, fastbreak and breakthrough). Linear mixed-effects models were fitted with championship year, sex, and team. Results revealed a significant decline in total effectiveness over time (p < 0.001), as well as higher effectiveness for female goalkeepers, alongside a significant Sex × Year interaction (p < 0.05) indicating a steeper decline in men. Considering six-metre, wing and nine-metre shots, significant effects of year and sex were identified (p < 0.05) showing a decline in effectiveness for both sexes and higher effectiveness for female than male goalkeepers. Female goalkeepers increased their effectiveness against breakthrough shots (p < 0.05). Male goalkeepers were more effective in seven-metre shots (p < 0.05). Given the observational design, these results reflect the evolution of both goalkeeping and offensive performance rather than isolated goalkeeper changes. These findings highlight the importance of considering position- and sex-specific approaches in goalkeeper training.