Dynamic rainfall and urban landscape adaptive capacity for flood resilience in Makassar City, Indonesia

Urban flooding in Makassar City is influenced by rainfall variability, urban development, and limited landscape capacity to regulate stormwater.This study applied a pressure-sensitivity-adaptive capacity (PSAC) framework to spatially assess the interaction between hydrological pressure, flood susceptibility, and landscape adaptive capacity.A descriptive quantitative approach was employed using secondary rainfall data for 2015-2024 from the Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological and Geophysical Agency (BMKG), official flood-susceptibility data from the Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD), spatial planning information, and Green Open Space (GOS) data.Rainfall dynamics were evaluated using annual and seasonal precipitation, wet-month frequency, and variability indicators, while flood susceptibility and GOS distribution were assessed through GIS-based spatial analysis.The results showed substantial rainfall variability during the study period, with monthly precipitation ranging from 42.7 to 612.4 mm and a coefficient of variation of 48.1%.High and very high flood-hazard classes covered 34.8% of the study area, while GOS accounted for only 12.42% of the urban area, below the 30% spatial planning benchmark.Furthermore, 41.2% of exposed assets were located within high and very high flood-hazard zones.The PSAC priority areas showed 78.6% spatial overlap with moderate-to-high BPBD flood-susceptibility zones, indicating substantial spatial consistency with the institutional reference dataset.The study demonstrates that integrating dynamic rainfall pressure, urban sensitivity, and landscape adaptive capacity provides a more comprehensive spatial basis for prioritizing flood adaptation and blue-green infrastructure interventions in tropical coastal cities.