Making the invisible visible: a reflection method to uncover justice-related design choices in energy models with model developers and users

Energy models play a central role in energy transition decisions yet are often treated as objective and value-neutral tools. Increasingly, scholars and practitioners argue that energy justice should be more explicitly linked to energy modelling, both because of its intrinsic importance and in response to contestation of top-down, techno-economic decision-making. Existing efforts mostly focus on incorporating justice within model logic via equity metrics or participatory modelling. In that process, modellers make several epistemic and normative choices that have justice implications, including who is recognized as a stakeholder, whose knowledge is represented, and which interests are prioritized. As such, it is essential that model developers and users engage reflexively with the modelling process. Yet, few concrete tools exist to support such reflection. This paper explores: How , and to what extent , does a reflection method help model developers and users identify assumptions and choices with potential justice implications? We develop and apply a reflection method in two workshops with developers and users of two policy-relevant energy models in the Netherlands: Energy Transition Model and Hestia. Our findings show how structured reflection can surface justice-relevant assumptions across the modelling process. We propose a typology of six ways in which (in)justice can manifest in/via energy models: model scoping, normative assumptions, policy steering effects, errors, complexity, and potential misuse. We identify a persistent “responsibility gap” between modellers and users, whereby responsibility for justice implications is displaced between those who design models and those who apply them. The paper concludes by suggesting how structured reflection can help integrate reflexivity and justice awareness more systematically into energy modelling practice.