Self-Reported TPACK among Indonesian Pre-Service Elementary Teachers: A Cross-Institutional Mixed-Methods Study in Culturally Responsive Teaching Contexts

The purpose of this study is to investigate Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) based on the self-perceptions of Indonesian primary school teachers and to investigate how they describe its use in the context of culturally responsive instruction. A mixed-methods framework was adopted, collecting quantitative data from 465 subjects using convenience sampling among three institutions: Universitas Muria Kudus (n = 339), Universitas Islam Sultan Agung (n = 101), and Universitas PGRI Semarang (n = 25). The seven TPACK domains were measured using a 48-item questionnaire. With Cronbach's alpha values ranging from 0.886 to 0.933, composite reliability from 0.913 to 0.944, AVE from 0.625 to 0.737, and HTMT values below 0.90, the measurement findings showed good validity and reliability. While overall TPACK revealed no significant inter-institutional differences (p = 0.154), Welch's ANOVA analysis revealed inter-institutional differences related to Content Knowledge, F (2, 60.46) = 5.97, p = 0.004, ?² = 0.025. All nine of the proposed structural routes showed substantial positive connections, according to PLS-SEM analysis. PCK, TPK, and TCK together accounted for 59.3% of the variation in total TPACK, while Pedagogical Knowledge showed the greatest standardized connection with Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (? = 0.454). Additionally, 65 participants' written answers to six open-ended questions were examined. Four themes emerged from the thematic analysis: professional learning demands, implementation problems, intentional use of digital resources, and cultural contextualization. Although the analysis results could not explain variations between institutions, a joint display of the data integrated the two datasets and showed that the qualitative findings gave context for the found structural links. This suggests that while taking into account cultural circumstances and the educational situation, technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge must be integrated. Instead of measuring culturally responsive teaching as a TPACK construct in isolation, the study considers it as a contextual perspective.