Biophilia as a temperament trait, not a universal: children’s attraction and aversion to biodiversity in the United States and Democratic Republic of Congo

Introduction The Biophilia Hypothesis proposes that humans have a universal attraction to the natural world, yet little is known about how this attraction emerges or varies during childhood. We tested the Biophilia Reactivity Hypothesis, which reframes biophilia as an early-emerging, individually variable, temperament-like orientation toward biodiversity. Methods We studied 295 children aged 3-13 years in two distinct settings: 124 children at the North Carolina Zoo in the United States and 171 children at Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Children completed a biophobia measure adapted from the Revised Fear Survey Schedule and a novel image-based biophilia task assessing Backyard Biophilia, Wildlife Tolerance, and Biophilic Travel. Results Children showed substantial individual variation across biophilia and biophobia measures, with responses spanning the available scale ranges. U.S. children showed higher Wildlife Tolerance and Biophilic Travel scores than Congolese children, whereas Backyard Biophilia did not differ between groups. Patterns of animal fear also differed between samples: U.S. children reported greater fear of some insects and arthropods, whereas Congolese children reported greater fear of several predators and reptiles. Biophobia was not significantly correlated with any of the three biophilia domains in either sample, indicating that low fear does not necessarily imply greater attraction to biodiversity. Discussion These findings support a model of biophilia as an individually variable, multidimensional disposition rather than a uniform human preference. They also suggest that attraction to biodiversity and fear of animals are partly distinct psychological systems and highlight the importance of studying children’s biodiversity preferences across development in varying ecological and sociocultural contexts.