One metaverse, different journeys: gender and the psychological drivers of university students' adoption intentions

Background The educational metaverse presents emerging opportunities for transforming university learning, yet students' willingness to adopt such environments may depend on psychological, technological and contextual factors. This study examined the predictors of university students' behavioural intentions to use the educational metaverse in Ghana, with particular attention to mediating and moderating mechanisms and gender differences. Methods An analytical survey design was employed, and data were collected from 917 university students selected through purposive sampling. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to examine the direct, mediating and moderating relationships among the study variables. Results Perceived observability, compatibility, cyber risk, personal innovativeness, trust and perceived usefulness were significantly associated with behavioural intention, whereas perceived complexity was negatively associated with behavioural intention. Perceived ease of use and enjoyment were not directly associated with behavioural intention. Trust significantly mediated the association between perceived usefulness and behavioural intention, while observability mediated the association between personal innovativeness and behavioural intention. However, enjoyment did not significantly mediate the association between perceived ease of use and behavioural intention. Gender significantly moderated the associations of compatibility, personal innovativeness, trust and perceived usefulness with behavioural intention, indicating differences in adoption patterns between male and female students. Cyber risk also moderated the association between trust and behavioural intention, weakening the positive relationship between the two constructs. Conclusions The findings suggest that educational metaverse adoption among university students is shaped by a combination of technological perceptions, personal innovativeness, trust and cyber risk, with several relationships operating through mediating and moderating mechanisms. The study extends educational metaverse adoption research by demonstrating the importance of examining these mechanisms rather than relying solely on direct predictors of behavioural intention. Universities and educational technology developers should therefore consider trust, cybersecurity and gender-related differences when designing and implementing metaverse-based learning environments.